Other terracotta recovered from Northern India hint at what must have been the widespread and highly develops art of terracotta sculpture in the Gupta period. In contrast to the surviving terracotta’s from the prehistoric and early historic periods, Gupta terracotta’s are often large (though not always as large as the two river goddesses from Ahicchattra).
Many formed panels that were used as decoration on temples. One such architectural fragment shows the God Vishnu riding atop his winged vehicle, the birdman Garuda. Only Vishnu’s two left arms are preserved, one holds a bow while the other brings his characteristic conch to his lips, as if the god is blowing it like a trumpet. The conch, whose fleeting sound sometimes serves as a symbol of the transience of the physical world, here probably indicated a war call, for the god and his companion seem to be in battle ready positions that suggest that the relief rep- resents an attack on an unseen adversary. Although its find spot is not known, the piece is of a type generally identified with the Uttar Pradesh region and such works are generally attributed to the site of Ahicchatra or, alternatively to Bhitargaon, two of the most well known and well preserved sites that have yielded Gupta-period terracotta’s in Northern India. But it is likely that the monuments at these two centres were not unique at the tie of their creation, and that sculptures like this may document a broadly-based style and art from current throughout North-Central India.
The curly hair-style of Garuda suggests aesthetic associations with stone art of the Gupta period, though the techniques used by the terracotta artist differ considerably form those of his fellow craftsmen who worked in stone. The outlines of the eyes and eyebrows, for example, have been created simply by using a sharp tool to incise in wet clay, creating a sense of dynamism and calligraphic line that is not apparent in works produced by the slower and more pains taking process of stone carving.
A second terracotta sculpture also probably in- tended to be used as architectural adornment and also probably from the Uttar Pradesh region, shows Rama, the hero of the Ramayana and his younger brother, Lakshmana, as if in conversation. Rama came to be considered the seventh incarnation of Vishnu and stories narrating events involving him are commonly included in the repertoire of subjects adorning a Vaishnavite temple. However, as a cult deity, he never achieved the stature of other depicted in art, and he is generally shown, as here, in a two-armed form that stresses his human, rather than his godly, characteristics.
The panel apparently records the period narrated in the Ramayana when, after Rama had been banished from the kingdom to which he was rightful heir, he lived in the company of forest dwellers, rather than princes; their earlobes, stretched from years of wear- ing heavy ornaments, are unadorned, and their hair is tied into simple topknots. The figures are strikingly naturalistic and life-like, an impression perhaps partly created by the terracotta medium.
One of the most dramatic and realistic of all the terracottas surviving from the Gupta period represents a Shaivite deity. The relief, broken at the waist of the figure, is from SahethMaheth, Shravasti, Uttar Pradesh, and shows an ascetic whose divine nature is indicated by the presence of four arms. His emaciated body, matted locks and pile up hair style (jata), as well as his lack of jewellery (especially noticeable due to the distended, pierced earlobes that conspicuously lack earrings), all signify his ascetic nature.
A very problematic monument that may be dis- cussed along with terracotta remains of the Gupta period is the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya. Much of its present appearance is due to renovations as recent as the nineteenth and twentieth century’s, although the essential elements may have been determined as early as the late-Kushana or Gupta periods.
As it now stands, the temple consists of a large central shrine surmounted by a large tower, surrounded by four smaller shrines. These are thought to have been added fairly recently, although certainly, the concept of the Panchayatana format was well- developed by the Gupta period as demonstrated by the Vishnu temple at Deogarh.
The present tower is probably much taller than the original superstructure, and its pyramidal profile, which differs from the typical, curved, northern-style sikhara, is possibly also the result of later modifications. The type of brickwork and use of certain vaulting techniques suggest ties to Iranian methods, possibly introduced into the Indic region by the Kushanas.
Chalukya Art
The most splendid achievement of the Chalukyas was recorded in the realm of art and architecture. They evolved a new style, which is known as the “Chalukyan architecture”. It has been described as belonging to the Vesara style, a combination of the South Indian or Dravida and the North Indian or Nagara Styles. The Chalukya art zone of Karnataka has been described by K. V. Soundara Rajan as “The Prayaga of coalescing formal trends in temple styles.” Moreover, the building activities of the period were, as Percy Brown observes, “clearly the result of an enthusiasm which was religious in origin and in intensity of purpose.”
The Chalukya monuments are broadly grouped into two classes: (a) the rock – cut halls, and (b) the structural temples. The excavated rock – cut halls are found at Badami and Aihole. There are four such cave temples at Badami. Of them the earliest and the largest is cave no. III excavated during the reign of Mangalesa and dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The other caves are of smaller dimensions, and the Cave No. IV is a Jaina temple. The Badami caves have three common features, namely, a pillared verandah, a columned hall and a small square cellar or Garbhagriha, cut deep into the rock.
The cave temples of this age contain some impressive sculptural specimens like Tandava murti, Harihara, Ardhanarisvara, Nataraja, Mahishasura Mardini and so on. The depiction of Vishnu in his Varaha incarnation is so full of vitality, vigor and charm that Zimmer wrote, “The age in which it was fashioned was one of those rare moments in the history of art in which versatility and restraint were perfectly balanced”. There are two excavated temples at Aihole, one Shaiva and the other Jaina. It is said that the Chalukya genius in excavating cave temples inspired the Pallavas.
Structural temples were built in large numbers during this period. The boom in temple building activity, which the Chalukya rule witnessed is said to have continued right up to the 13th Century A. D. The three important centres of Chalukyan architecture are Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. Of these Aihole has been described as “the cradle of the Indian architecture”, and it alone consists of 70 temples. The Gaudaragudi and the Ladhkhan temple are the oldest buildings of the Aihole group. The Ladhkhan temple is a comparatively low, flat – roofed building, fifty feet square. There of its sides are completely enclosed by walls, and from its fourth side, forming its eastern front, there is projected an open-pillared porch.
The Durga temple, according to Percy Brown, “is a Brahmanical version of the Buddhist Chaitya hall, adopted to suit the service of the former creed”. It contains a new feature, namely. A vestibule or anta- rala, which is an intermediate chamber between the cell and the main hall. It also had a shikhara over the Garbhagriha, but now it has fallen. The Huchchi- malligudi is something of an abridged form of the Durga temple. There are other important temples in Aihole, which represent various stages of architectural evolution, like the Kontigudi, Allibasappa temple, the Meguti temple, Huchchappayya gudi and Tarappagudi.
At Badami there are a few important structural temples like the Naganatha temple and the Malegitti Sivalaya. At Pattadakal there are ten temples four in the northern style and six in the Dravidian style. Important temples of Pattadakal are the Papanatha temple, the Sangameshvara temple, the Virupaksha temple, Mallikarjuna temple, the Galaganatha temple, the Kashi Vishveshwara temple, the jambulingeshvara temple and the Kadasiddeshvara temple. Among them the most famous is the Virupaksha temple. It was built at the orders of Lokamahadevi, the senior queen of Vikramaditya II to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas. It has many features similar to the Kailasanatha temple of Kanchi.
The Chief architect of the temple was Sri Gundan Anivaritachari, who held such titles as “Anikapuravastu Pitamaha” and “Tenkanadesiya Sutradhari”. Ac- cording to Percy Brown, “There is a bold beauty in the appearance of the Virupaksha temple as a whole, which is best seen in the exterior”. The main building measures 120 feet, and the studied grouping of its parts produces a very pleasant total effect. The heaviness of the stone work is relieved by an increase in the amount and quality of the sculpture, which includes the representations of Shiva, Nagas and Naginis and the scenes from the Ramayana. As Percy Brown ob- serves, “The sculpture flows into the architecture in a continuous yet disciplined stream…. The Virupaksha temple is one of those rare buildings of the past in which the spirit still lingers of the men who conceived it and wrought it with their hands”.
The scholars have identified a few examples of the Chalukya painting. “The Temptation of the Buddha” and “the Persian Embassy” in Cave No. I at Ajantha have been assigned to this period. The Caves of Badami too have a few fragments of paintings to offer. But they are not well – preserved. Nevertheless, they enrich the proud heritage of Chalukyan art, which has so much to present in terms of variety, novelty, grace and beauty.
Pallava Art
As in case of many other ruling families in South Asia, the Pallavas were known in history long before they rose to prominence. They may be traced as far back as the second century A.D., but it is not until the latter half of the sixth century that the family and its history become less enigmatic, with both inscriptions and art monuments in stone appearing to initiate a steady tradition that lasted approximately two hundred years. The Pallavas were heirs to the Andhra region, but expanded their territories to include much of the Tamil area to the South.
At times, their empire also reached into the Deccan and to the frontier of Orissa. The figure style visible in their art shows clear ties to the earlier Buddhist traditions developed under the Satavahanas and Iksvakus, although the Pallavas were Hindus, primarily Shaivite. The origins of their architectural forms, however, are more difficult to assess, since precedents in ephemeral materials are unknown and earlier stone monuments in the Pallava regions are scarce.
It has been suggested that a strong, traditional use of stone as a medium for funerary monuments in the South, as seen in the long megalithic tradition, led to a reticence to employ it in temple architecture prior to the Pallava period. Perhaps a study of some of the caves in the Vijayawada region may someday-shed light on the origins of Pallava stone monuments.
The burst of artistic energy under the Pallavas, however, cannot be understood simply in terms of precedents, for the Pallava Empire was blessed with a number of strong rulers, several of whom imposed their personalities on the production of art. Religious developments, particularly Bhakti cults, must have played a major role in providing impetus to artistic developments.
In particular, the Alvars, a group of Tamil Vaishnavite poet saints, and the Shaivite Nayanars stimulated religious thought, which may have affected the production of art and temple architecture. Four of the Alvars came from the Pallava country and their devotional (bhakti) hymns, which were concerned with the personal experience of the deity rather than metaphysics, must have had great impact on the society.
1. Early Phase
It is usually assumed that the early phase of Pallava architecture consisted primarily of rock-cut monuments, while the later phase is dominated by structural buildings. As a general rule, this is true, at least in terms of the surviving examples. However, there is evidence to suggest that structural monuments were produced virtually from the inceptions of the Pallava tradition and perhaps the two phases should be considered shifts in emphasis rather than total abandonment of one from and the supplanting of another.
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