THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION

 

3.2 Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000-600 B.C.)

They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western U.P. covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; later with the use of iron tools which became common by 1000-800 B.C. In Later Vedic period, many great cities like Videha, Kaushambhi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur and Indraprashtha etc. had sprung up. Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.

  • The earliest legend on the origin of kingship occurs in the Aitareya Brahmana, one of the Later Vedic texts, perhaps of the 8th or 7th century B.C.
  • During the Rigvedic period the Aryans had built only small kingdoms, as they were always busy fighting the non-Aryans. But now they had crushed the resistance of the non-Aryans and had established such powerful kingdoms as Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Magadha, Kasi and Anga.
  • Powers of the king who was called the Samrat increased. Importance of assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies and the term ‘Rashtra’ indicating territory first appeared in this period.
  • The establishment of vast empires led to the growth of the royal power.

The Sabha and the Samiti were now not powerful enough to check the power of the kings. The office of the monarch had now become more or less hereditary. A regular army was maintained for the protection of the kingdom. In the Rigvedic period we hear of three main assistants of the king, i.e., the Purohita, the Senani and the Gramini. But now in addition to these officials many new assistants of the king were present. References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta), Treasurer (Sangrihita), Tax collector (Bhagdugha), Chief Queen (Mahisi) and the Great companion (Aksavapa)

  • The centre of gravity was the king and not the priest. If there was any difference between the ruler and the priest, it was the priest who yielded.
  • Kings of various grades are mentioned in the Vedic hymns. For example, the Rajaka was inferior to a Raja who in turn was inferior to a Samrat.
  • Political affairs, religious and social matters were discussed by the speakers in the local assemblies. These speakers sought the help of spells and magic herbs to stimulate their eloquence in debate (Pras) and overcome their rival debaters (Pratiprasita).

The four fold division of society became clear initially based on occupation which later became hereditary; Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, and traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three). Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their status deteriorated compared to earlier time. The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified descent from common ancestors, in this age also Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling the main pastime. The excavations at Hastinapur in Meerut, dating back to about 900 B.C.-500 B.C. have revealed settlements and faint beginning of town life. It may be called a proto-urban site. Later Vedic period, especially from around 800 B.C- 500 B.C, is also the Sutra period. Sutra means formula. Grihasutra contained social rituals including sixteen sanskaras through which individual had to pass from conception to cremation. Woman was now gradually losing her position of importance in the religious and social sphere. The king and the nobility had now begun to marry more than one wife and the birth of a daughter was now regarded as source of misery.

Higher education was, however, imparted to women. The re-marriage of a widow was prevalent and the practices of sati, child-marriage and Purdah and child infanticide were not heard of.

Ø  Now in place of four main varnas many new castes were born, leading to the complexities of the caste system.

Ø  The life of an ordinary man was now, however, divided into four stages popularly known as the four Ashramas.

 

Types of marriages

 

Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class.

Daiva: Marriage in which the father gave his daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fees.

Arsa: Marriage in which a token bride price of a cow and a bull was paid to the daughter’s father.

Prajapatya: Marriage in which the father gave the girl without any dowry and without demanding bride price.

Gandharva: Marriage often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties.

Asura: Marriage by purchase.

Rakshasa: Marriage by capture.

Paishacha: Marriage involving the seduction of a girl while sleeping, etc.

Anuloma marriage: was the marriage of higher Varna man with a lower Varna woman.

Pratiloma marriage: was the marriage of a lower Varna man with a higher Varna woman.

 

Important Vedic Rituals

Asvamedha: A king performed this sacrifice which meant control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of which the horse sacrificed was performed. The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows

Vajapeva: A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the race (it was fixed). It was meant to re-establish the supremacy of the king over his people.

Rajasuya: A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king.

Ratnahavimsi: A part of Rajasuya ceremony where different royal officials (ratnins) invoked different gods and goddesses.

Upanayana: An initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of the higher varnas in their eighth year.

Pumsayam: A ceremony to procure a male child. Garbhadhana: A ceremony to promote conception in women.

Culakarma: A ceremony, also known tonsure performed for boys in their third year.

Semontannayam: A ceremony to ensure the safety of the child in the womb.

Jatkarma: A birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.

 

Though the Later Vedic phase has been identified with the Painted Grey Ware pottery culture, but the fact is that this type of pottery constitutes only about 3-15% of the total Pottery found. The later Vedic people used four types of pottery: black and red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware. Red ware for commoners was most popular and has been found almost all over western U.P. However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by upper classes.

  • During Later Vedic period, Krishnala berry was unit of weight and this probably led to the use of coinage. The Nishka replaced cow as a unit of value. The Satamana mentioned in the Brahmanas was a piece of gold weighing a hundred Krishnalas.
  • Rigveda mentions only gold and copper or bronze but Later Vedic texts mention tin, lead, silver and iron.
  • In addition to the cultivation of barley, wheat and rice, many new grains such as sesame (Tila) and beans began to be cultivated during this period and great progress was doubtlessly made in the methods of cultivation

Rituals and formulae became prominent in the cult of sacrifice. According to the scheme of four stages, life did not begin with one’s physical birth, but with the second birth which was after the investiture ceremony or Upanayana. The age of Upanayana was 8 years for Brahmanas, 11 years for Kshatriyas, and 12 years for Vaishyas. Shatpatha Brahmana says that east, west, north, south; all should be given to priests as fee. Indra, Varuna, Surya and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became supreme. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.

  • Some of the special orders came to have their own deities e.g. Pushan responsible for well being of the cattle, became the God of the Shudras.
  • Towards the end of the period, began a strong reaction against the sacrificial cults and rituals with the composition of the Upanishads which valued right belief and knowledge more than anything else.

 

3.3 The Vedic Literature the Vedas

The word ‘veda’ comes from the root ‘vidi’ signifying knowledge. Vedas are also known as ‘Shruti’ (to hear) as they were passed from generation through verbal transmission, Harappa is known in Vedas as ‘Haryupriva’, they are four in all – rigveda, samaveda, yajurveda and atharveda.

The first three Vedas are known as ‘Tyari’ or ‘trio’. Each Veda is further subdivided into Samhitas and the phrase ‘Arya’ and ‘Shudra’ appearing in the Vedic literature perhaps meant only to distinguish those who were theoretically qualified for the fire- cult from those who were not.

 

(1) Rig Veda

The Oldest religious text in the world must have been composed around 1700 B.C, A collection of hymns. Vedas Were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. Contains 1028 hymns (1017+11 valakhilyas) and is divided into 10 mandalas. II to VII are the earliest mandalas, each of which is ascribed to a particular family of seers (rishis) – Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaj and Vashistha. VII Mandala is ascribed to the Kanvas and Angiras. IX is the compilation of Soma hymns. I and X are considered the later additions. The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which explains that the four varnas (Brahmans, Ksatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma.

  • Words in Rig Veda: Om (1028 times), Jan (275 times), etc. 250 hymns are dedicated to Indra while 200 are dedicated to Agni.
  • The third Mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra (addressed to the sun/Savitri – goddess associated with Surya).
  • Saraswati is the deity river in Rig Veda and is referred to 8 times while the Sindhu/Indus is referred to 18 times.
  • There is a reference to prison (urva) in the Rigveda and also to fetters of iron. Ordeal of the red-hot axe is mentioned only once in the Chhandogya Upanishad as part of criminal procedure.

 

(2) Samveda

It derived from the root ‘Saman’ i.e. ‘melody’. It is a collection of melodies. It has 1603 verses but except 99 all the rest have been borrowed from Rig Veda. It contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’ which is the oldest of the ragas.

 

(3) Yajurveda

It deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. There are two main texts of Yajurveda: White Yajurveda (or Shukla Yajurveda) and Black Yajurveda (or Krishna Yajurveda). The former contains mantras and the latter has commentary in prose.

 

(4) Atharvaveda

  • Entirely different from three other Vedas
  • It divided into 20 kandas (books) and has 711 hymns mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems of people). Atharvaveda refers to king as protector of Brahmanas and eater of people. From the point of view of Vedic rituals, Atharvaveda is the most important.

 

(5) The Brahamans

They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox manner. Each Veda has several Brahmans attached to it. The most important is ‘Satpatha Brahmana’ attached to Yajurveda which is the most exhaustive and important of all. It recommends ‘One Hundred Sacred Paths’.

 

(6) The Aranyakas

It also called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living in the jungles for their pupils. These are the concluding part of the Brahmanas. It also deals with mysticism and philosophy. They opposed to sacrifice and emphasized meditation. They Form a bridge between ‘Way of Work’ (Karma Marg) which was the sole concern of the Upanishads and the ‘Way of Knowledge’ (Gyan Marg) which the Brahmanas advocated.

 

(7) The Upanishads

The word means ‘to sit dowm near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn.

These are also called Vedanta (the end of the Vedas) firstly because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly because they reveal the final aim of the Vedas.

  • They are the main source of Indian philosophy.
  • There are 108 Upanishads.
  • They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices.
  • They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action (karma).
  • Mandukyu Upanishad is the source of ‘Satya Mevya Jayate’.

 

(8) Smritis

Smritis explains rules and regulations in the Vedic life. Main is Manusmriti, Naradsmriti, Yagyavalkyasmriti and Parasharsmriti. Dharmasutras contain social laws popularly known as ‘Smriti’. Earliest Dharmasutra is the Manusmriti which is also called Manav Darshan.

 

(9) Vedangas

Six Vedangas are Shiksha which deals with pronunciation, Kalpa which deals with rituals, Vyakarana which deals with grammar, Nirukta which deals with etymology or phonetics, Chhanda which deals with meter and Jyotisha which deals with astronomy.

(10) Epics

The period that lies between the Rigvedic period and the rise of Buddhism in India i.e., 2000 to 700B.C. has been designated by some as the Later Vedic Period and by some as Epic Age.

Though the two epics – the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were compiled later, they reflect the state of affairs of the later Vedic Period. The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa is considered older than the Ramayana and describes the period about 1400 B.C.; compiled from the tenth century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. It is also called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has one lakh verses and is divided into eighteen books with the Harivansa attached to it at the end. The Ramayana attributed to Valmiki has 24,000 verses. Its composition started in the fifth century B.C. and passes through five stages; the fifth stage ending in the 12th century A.

Leave a Reply